
Morse Code 101
Course Introduction
Portions of this page have been copied from the U.S. Navy Radioman 3&2 training manual
Welcome to the Morse Code class hosted by the White House Communications Agency Amateur Radio Club!
Morse Code is a historic method of communication that uses a series of dots and dashes to represent letters and numbers. In this class, you will learn the basics of Morse Code, its history, and how it is still relevant in today’s modern world of communication. Whether you are a beginner or looking to brush up on your skills, our experienced instructors are here to guide you through the world of Morse Code communication. Get ready to dive into a fascinating world of Dits and Dahs as we explore the art of Morse Code together!
Amateur license restructuring has eliminated the need to pass a 13- or 20-word-per-minute (wpm) test for full operating privileges. Simply sending Morse Code at 5-wpm test grants you complete access to the HF bands. Yet, there are compelling reasons to aim for more. A solid level of Morse proficiency, capable of copying at 12-13 wpm or higher, significantly enhances the enjoyment of Amateur Radio.

Using morse code signal lamps to communicate in the navy is a traditional form of visual communication that dates back to the early days of naval warfare.
HF activities like DXing, contesting, and QRP operating heavily rely on CW. Many ham radio enthusiasts find CW appealing for its unique and relaxing nature compared to other forms of communication. Even on VHF and higher frequencies, engaging undertakings such as Moonbounce and weak-signal work demand Morse skills for full participation.
The push to lower code-speed requirements stemmed from the misconception that reaching 13 or 20 wpm is a daunting obstacle. This perception is unfounded. By dedicating a bit more time than needed for the 5-wpm test, you can attain genuine, higher-speed code proficiency that enriches your hobby experience.
Much of the conventional wisdom on learning Morse Code is inaccurate. Amateur radio operators have historically employed ineffective, frustrating, and time-consuming methods for improving code proficiency.
It is possible to achieve genuine code proficiency efficiently. By adopting a fresh perspective and employing different techniques than those commonly used by amateurs over the past fifty years, you can make significant progress.
Success in mastering Morse Code, much like reaching 5 wpm, necessitates effort. Regular training sessions of 15-30 minutes daily are essential until you achieve your objective. The timeline for success varies among individuals. Without this commitment, your efforts may be in vain.
What’s different now is that we’re using a code training technique created by a German psychologist named Ludwig Koch about 60 years ago. This method helps you improve as fast as possible, with lots of support and minimal frustration. When you grasp how this method enhances your code skills, you’ll realize the importance of practicing regularly and be able to estimate how much time it will take to reach your goal.
We’re going to start on your road to success by throwing some time-honored ham-radio traditions onto the “Trash heap of history”, as Ronald Reagan once said, where they belong.
These are:
- Slow (5 wpm) code — It ought to be illegal to teach anyone code at 5 wpm. Every minute spent toying with 5 wpm code is irrevocably wasted. In addition, as we’ll see later, starting with slow code is a virtually-guaranteed path to frustration and quitting. Morse at 5 wpm and Morse at 15 or 20 wpm are completely different critters, and you don’t want to waste time on the wrong one.
- Charts, mnemonics, musical cues and other “memory aids” — These things make you think about what you’re doing while trying to copy code. That is deadly to proficient copying.
- Code tapes — In very short order, and unconsciously, you’ll memorize the tape. This will lull you into false confidence in your ability. That false confidence will be quickly shattered when you hear transmitted text that you haven’t memorized.
- Copying QSOs off the air — You don’t know the speed of code you find on the bands, and much code on the air is pretty badly sent. All this makes it useless for training purposes. Formal code-practice sessions, such as those on W1AW, are OK, however.
Now that you know what you’re not going to do, let’s start examining the commonly accepted ways gain code proficiency.. We will then discuss how your training in this class will be done.
During World War II, women played a crucial role in radio communications. They were involved in various aspects of radio operations, including codebreaking, switchboard operations, and journalism. Let’s explore the contributions of women in radio communications during WWII.
Women codebreakers collected information such as the names of enemy ships, troop movements, and strategic plans, which greatly aided the Allied forces.
Their work in breaking enemy codes helped to ensure the success of military operations and played a significant role in the outcome of the war.
The Women’s Army Corps (WAC) had a program called WIRES (Women in Radio and Electrical Service), which trained women to operate handle radio communications.
Their contributions helped to shape the outcome of the war and provided crucial support to the Allied forces.
Despite facing gender-based discrimination and societal expectations, these women proved their capabilities and made a lasting impact in the field of radio communications.
INERNATIONAL MORSE CODE
The international Morse code is a telegraphic alphabet, with letters and numbers represented by sound patterns.
If you are a graduate of a Class A Radioman School, you were taught the Morse code, consequently much of this chapter may be of little interest to you. But, if this is your first acquaintance with the code – if you are striking for Radioman from the deck force, or changing to Radioman from another rating – you have many hours of hard work ahead. Do not be discouraged on this account. Many fine Radiomen learn the code for themselves.
The letters in Morse code are represented by dots and dashes; radio operators, however, substitute the expressions “dits” and “dahs,” which closely resemble the sounds of the telegraphic hand key. The groups of dits and dahs representing each letter must be made as one unit, with a clear break between each dit and each dah, and a much more distinct break between the letters. A dit is one-third the length of a dah.
You must never try to count the dits and dahs. Do not let yourself get in the habit of doing so. It is a temptation at first, but you won’t be able to count fast enough when the code speed picks up. Learn sound patterns instead. To understand what a sound pattern is, rap out the pattern beginning “Shave and a haircut.” You recognize this from its characteristic rhythm, not because it has a certain number of beats in it. You must learn the code the same way. There are 36 Morse sound patterns for the letters and numbers, plus a few others representing prosigns and punctuation marks. With study and drill you can learn to recognize each pattern as fast as you now recognize “Shave and a haircut.” The accent always falls on dahs, and you should pronounce each rhythmical combination with that emphasis in mind.
Go through the alphabet several times to get the sound “feel” of the dit and dah combinations
Portions copied from the U.S. Navy Radioman 3&2 course book.
MORSE ALPHABET
In the pronunciation guide for sounds of letters that follows, sounds are written as phonetically as possible. In the middle of a group, the short sound “dit” actually takes on the sound “di.” The phonetic alphabet is included in parentheses after the letters. Acquire the habit of referring to the letters phonetically.
Letter Pronunciation
A (ALFA) ————– di-DAH
B (BRAVO) ———— DAH-di-di-dit
C (CHARLIE) ——— DAH-di-DAH-dit
D (DELTA) ———— Dah-di-dit
E (ECHO) ————- dit
F (FOXTROT) ——- di-di-DAH-dit
G (GOLF) ————- DAH-DAH-dit
H (HOTEL) ———– di-di-di-dit
I (INDIA) ————– di- dit
J (JULIETT) ———- di-DAH-DAH-DAH
K (KILO) ————– DAH-di-DAH
L (LIMA) ————— di-DAH-di-dit
M (MIKE) ————–DAH-DAH
N (NOVEMBER) —- DAH-dit
O (OSCAR) ———- DAH-DAH-DAH
P (PAPA) ————- di-DAH-DAH-dit
Q (QUEBEC) ——– DAH-DAH-di-DAH
R (ROMEO) ——— di-DAH-dit
S (SIERRA) ——— di-di-dit
T (TANGO) ———- DAH
U (UNIFORM) —— di-di-DAH
V (VICTOR) ——— di-di-di-DAH
W (WHISKEY) —– di-DAH-DAH
X (XRAY) ———— DAH-di-di-DAH
Y (YANKEE) ——– DAH-di-DAH-DAH
Z (ZULU) ——– DAH-DAH-di-dit
Number Pronunciation
1—————- di-DAH-DAH-DAH-DAH
2—————- di-di-DAH-DAH-DAH
3—————- di-di-di-DAH-DAH
4—————- di-di-di-di-DAH
5—————- di-di-di-di-dit
6—————- DAH-di-di-di-dit
7—————- DAH-DAH-di-di-dit
8—————- DAH-DAH-DAH-di-dit
9—————- DAH-DAH-DAH-DAH-dit
0—————- DAH-DAH-DAH-DAH-DAH
Punctuation Mark Pronunciation
Hyphen (dash) ——– DAH-di-di-di-di-DAH
PERIOD —————— di-DAH-di-DAH-di-DAH
Slant ——————— DAH-di-di-DAH-dit
Apostrophe ———— di-DAH-DAH-DAH-DAH-dit
Colon ——————– DAH-DAH-DAH-di-di-dit
Comma —————– DAH-DAH-di-di-DAH-DAH
Question mark —– — di-di-DAH-DAH-di-dit
PRINTING CLEARLY
Learn to print clearly and rapidly. The messages you handle are important, and someone must read what you have written without puzzling over it. Examine figure 4-2 and compare the printed letters with your own. Notice that the sequence of strokes for some letters may be different from the way you customarily form them. As an aid to rapid printing, the more of the letter you can form with a single stroke, the better. Use this illustration as a guide to avoid confusions between printed letters and printed numerals. Especially watch the letter Z and the numeral 2. If you wish, write Z with a line through the stem (-Z). Even more important is the distinction between the capital letter O and the figure zero. In communication work, zero is always written with a slant through it (Ø). Exercise care to avoid confusion between letter I and figure 1, and also letter S and figure 5.

As your code speed increases, you will find it impossible to print rapidly enough to keep up; therefore, typewriting is a skill also required of all Radio Amateurs is higher code speed is desired If an operator is proficient using a typewriter or copying code in your head, those two methods is advised.
HAND KEY
The first key you will use is the hand key. The hand key is widely used on radiotelegraph circuits and with practice oscillators. It must be adjusted properly before you can send clearcut characters. Figure 4-3 shows a hand key, with parts labeled

SENDING
Your ability to send well depends mainly upon two capabilities. First, you must know the correct sound of the character you are attempting to transmit. Second, you must know the proper method for keying with perfect control. Practicing the code aloud, as well as receiving it by oscillator, has given you a good knowledge of code sound. The proper method for keying is your next concern.
The first key you will use is the hand key. The hand key is widely used on radiotelegraph circuits and with practice oscillators. It must be adjusted properly before you can send clearcut characters. Figure 4-3 shows a hand key, with parts labeled
KEY ADJUSTMENT
The spring tension screw, behind the key button, controls the amount of upward tension on the key. The tension desired varies with operators. Too much tension forces the key button up before the dahs are completely formed; spacing between characters is irregular, and dits are not clearly defined. If the spring tension is very weak, characters run together and the space between characters is too short.
The gap between the contacts, regulated by the space adjusting screw at the back of the key, should be set at one-sixteenth inch for beginners. This measurement does not apply to every key and operator; it is a matter of personal preference. Some operators like a closed key, others an open key. “Closed” and “open” are terms for a short and a long gap. As the student progresses, further gap adjustment may be made to suit his sending speed. Contacts that are too close have an effect similar to weak spring tension. Contacts that are spaced too far have the same effect as too much spring tension.
The final adjustment of the key is the sidewise alignment of the contact points. This alignment is controlled by the trunnion screws at either side of the key. If they are too tight, the key lever binds. If they are too loose, the contacts have sidewise play. Usually, when the sidewise alignment is correct, no further adjustment is required.
POSITION OF HAND ON KEY; WRIST MOVEMENT
Learn from the beginning the correct way to grasp the key. Do not hold the key tightly, but let your fingers rest lightly on the key knob. Your thumb rests against the side, your forefinger rests on top of the key, your other fingers are bent slightly in a relaxed position. Check figures 4-4 and 4-5 for the correct method of keying. To ensure correct movement of your wrist and forearm, your arm should lie on the operating desk. The muscle of your forearm – not your elbow – should support the weight of your arm. Your elbow should not extend over the edge of the table, because the pressure of the underside of your forearm will partly block circulation and tire you. Sit upright, with your arm in line with the key.

Your ability to transmit depends to a great extent on acquiring the proper movements of your wrist and hand while operating the key. To close the key, your wrist moves upward and your hand rocks downward toward your fingertips. To open the key, these two movements are reversed- your wrist comes down and your hand rocks back.
Make your wrist flexible. Limber it up. Correct wrist action may be developed by moving your wrist up and down like a hinge. Another exercise is rotating your hand in clockwise circles, with your wrist held in a stationary position. These exercises will relieve any undue tension you may experience when first beginning to transmit.
AUTOMATIC IAMBIC KEY
Using an iambic full automatic Morse code key offer several advantages:
Efficiency: An iambic key and keyer combination allows for faster and more efficient Morse code sending compared to using a manual key. The automatic keyer generates the appropriate length of dots and dashes, enabling quicker transmission of messages.
Accuracy: The automatic feature of the keyer reduces the chances of errors in Morse code sending. By maintaining consistent timing and spacing between characters, the keyer helps ensure accurate transmissions.
Ease of Use: The combination of an iambic key and keyer simplifies the process of sending Morse code. Operators can focus on composing messages without the added complexity of manually forming each character, leading to a smoother communication experience.
Versatility: An iambic key and keyer setup is versatile and can be used in various Morse code applications, from amateur radio operations to emergency communications. Its flexibility makes it a valuable tool for Morse code enthusiasts in different scenarios.
Muscle Memory Development: Using an iambic key and keyer helps develop muscle memory, which is essential for proficient Morse code sending. Consistent practice with the keyer enhances muscle memory, enabling operators to transmit messages more effectively over time.
In summary, utilizing an iambic full automatic Morse code key and keyer can enhance the efficiency, accuracy, ease of use, versatility, and muscle memory development in Morse code operations, making it a beneficial choice for Morse code enthusiasts and operators.

To adjust an iambic Morse code key, you can follow these general steps:
- Locate the adjustment screws: Most iambic keys have two adjustment screws, one for each paddle. These screws are usually located near the pivot point of each paddle.
- Start with a neutral position: Before making any adjustments, ensure that both paddles are in a neutral position, meaning they are not tilted to one side or the other.
- Adjust the paddle tension: If you find that the paddles are too loose or too tight, you can adjust the tension using the adjustment screws. Turning the screws clockwise will increase the tension, while turning them counterclockwise will decrease it. Make small adjustments and test the feel of the paddles until you find the desired tension.
- Check for proper contact closure: When you press a paddle, it should make good contact with the corresponding contact point. If you notice any issues with contact closure, you can adjust it by slightly bending the contact points or adjusting the position of the paddles.
- Test and fine-tune: After making adjustments, it’s important to test the key by sending Morse code. Pay attention to the spacing between dots and dashes, as well as the responsiveness of the paddles. If necessary, make further adjustments to achieve the desired performance.
Please note that the specific adjustment process may vary depending on the make and model of your iambic Morse code key. It’s always a good idea to consult the manufacturer’s instructions or seek guidance from experienced Morse code operators for more detailed instructions tailored to your specific key.
SEMI-AUTOMATIC KEY
The semi-automatic key, also known as the bug or speed key, is used chiefly when operators are required to send for relatively long periods of time. It is designed to make sending easy instead of fast. Hence, perfect control of the key is far more important than speed.
OPERATION
In sending with the bug, the thumb presses the dit paddle (fig. 4-6) to the right, and the index finger forms dahs by pressing the knob to the left. The key sends successive dits when the paddle is held to the right. One dit or a series may be sent, depending on how long the thumb pressure is maintained against the paddle. One dah is formed every time the knob is pressed to the left. Dahs must be sent individually. While sending, the hand pivots at the wrist; the hand and arm motion is horizontal.

KEY ADJUSTMENT
Best operation of the semiautomatic key is obtained when it is adjusted to send dits and spaces of equal length. Adjust the key as follows, locating the parts in figure 4-6 when adjusting the key:
- Adjust the back stop screw until the reed lightly touches the deadener. Tighten the locknut.
- Adjust the front stop screw until the separation between the end of the screw and the reed is approximately .015 inch. Tighten the locknut.
- Operate the dit paddle to the right. Hold the lever in this position and stop the vibration of the reed. Adjust the dit contact adjusting screw until the dit contacts barely touch. Tighten the locknut. This adjustment determines whether the dits will be too heavy, too light, or perfect. The adjustment must be made without flexing the contact spring.
- If the dits are too fast, move the weights, located on the reed, in the direction of the deadener. If the dits are too slow, move the same weights in the opposite direction.
- Adjust the dah contact adjusting screw to a clearance of approximately .030 inch.
- Adjust the dit refractive and dah tension springs for the most comfortable, operation.
If the adjustment instructions are followed carefully, the bug makes 25 or more dits before stopping. The first 12 to 15 dits will be practically perfect, with the dits and spaces equal.
Morse Training by the Koch Method
Go to the shack of a veteran CW operator, or visit the CW station at a club Field Day operation. Watch people copy and send code at 30 to 35 wpm. You’ll notice they’re pretty relaxed about it; they’re not sweating each character as it comes out of the speaker and they’re not racking their brains to “figure out” what’s being sent. Code has become second nature to them.
That’s the key to code proficiency. Copying code must be a thought-free process. When you hear a character, you should know, without thinking, what it is. It should be a reflex. In fact, copying above about 10 wpm can only be done by reflex. Above that speed, thought processes are too slow to succeed.
That’s why slow code is a deadly trap, and why traditional amateur methods of code training are so painful and frustrating. Most hams are told to memorize all the characters, then start building their speed. When you do it this way, you build a “lookup table” in your brain, comparing each character you hear with those in the lookup table until you find a match. This process shuts down from overload at about 10 wpm. That’s why people experience a “plateau” at 10 wpm, and don’t see any progress for weeks or months.
Those who finally get over that “hump” and progress beyond 10 wpm do so because, through constant practice, they have begun to copy code by reflex instead of by thought. They are the lucky ones; this 10 wpm barrier is where many folks give up out of frustration.
Code training, then, should completely bypass the lookup-table phase and begin by building copying proficiency as a reflex. This was recognized in the 1930s by the German psychologist Ludwig Koch, who devised the most efficient method known for Morse training. It’s his method, and how you can use it, that we’re going to examine in detail.
The Morse Training by the Koch Method is a straightforward approach created by German psychologist Ludwig Koch. This method helps develop reflexes efficiently but requires a computer with Morse software or a personal trainer. It was overlooked for many years due to the lack of widespread computer availability. With computers now common, it should be the standard Morse training method. Here’s how it works
Set up your computer to send Morse characters at 20 wpm with an overall speed of at least 15 wpm.
- Begin with the machine sending only two characters. Copy these characters on paper for five minutes.
- Stop the machine and compare what you copied with what was sent. Calculate your percentage of correct copy.
- If you score 90% or higher, you’ve learned those two characters at full speed. If not, practice until you reach 90% accuracy.
- Once you can copy the first two characters accurately, add a third character and repeat the process.
- The method focuses on building reflexes rather than memorization, similar to learning touch typing.
- Progress at your own pace, mastering each new character efficiently.
- The time required varies for each individual. Koch’s method helped students master 12 wpm code in around 13.5 hours.
- Track your training sessions to estimate the time needed to learn all characters for the amateur Morse test.
The Koch method is known for its efficiency in Morse training, emphasizing reflex development over rote memorization.
Note: This section was based on the article: https://www.qsl.net/n1irz/finley.morse.html

During World War II, African Americans played a crucial role as communications radio operators, contributing significantly to the war effort despite facing racial discrimination and segregation. These individuals served in various capacities within the military, responsible for transmitting and receiving vital messages that were essential for coordinating operations, ensuring troop movements, and gathering intelligence.
African American radio operators underwent training to operate complex radio equipment, encode and decode messages, and maintain communication networks under challenging conditions. Their expertise in radio communications was instrumental in facilitating effective communication between different units on the battlefield, enabling swift and coordinated responses to changing situations.
THE FARNSWORTH TIMING FOR MORSE CODE
Morse code, a method of encoding text characters using sequences of dots and dashes, has been a vital communication tool for centuries. Efficient transmission and reception of Morse code require proper timing to ensure accurate interpretation of the message. One popular timing method used in Morse code communication is the Farnsworth timing.
What is Farnsworth Timing?
Farnsworth timing is a technique named after Donald Farnsworth, an American radio amateur who advocated for spacing characters further apart while maintaining a faster overall speed. In Farnsworth timing, the duration of the individual dots and dashes remains the same as in standard Morse code, but the spacing between characters and words is increased. This method allows learners to grasp the overall rhythm and structure of Morse code more effectively.
Benefits of Farnsworth Timing
- Improved Comprehension: By spacing characters and words further apart, Farnsworth timing helps learners distinguish between individual symbols more easily, leading to better comprehension.
- Reduced Stress: The slower overall speed of Farnsworth timing can reduce cognitive load, making it less stressful for beginners to learn Morse code.
- Enhanced Retention: With clearer distinctions between characters, learners are more likely to retain Morse code symbols in their memory for faster recall.
How Farnsworth Timing Works
- Character Speed: The speed of individual dots and dashes in Farnsworth timing remains the same as standard Morse code. For example, an ‘E’ (dot) and a ‘T’ (dash) still have their traditional durations.
- Inter-Character Spacing: Instead of shortening the duration of individual symbols, Farnsworth timing increases the spacing between characters. This allows learners to process and differentiate between symbols effectively.
- Word Spacing: Similarly, the spacing between words is extended in Farnsworth timing to provide learners with sufficient time to recognize the end of a word and prepare for the next one.
Practical Applications
- Training Programs: Many Morse code training programs and courses utilize Farnsworth timing to help students learn Morse code efficiently.
- On-Air Communication: Some operators use Farnsworth timing during on-air Morse code transmissions to accommodate operators with varying skill levels.
Conclusion
The Farnsworth timing method offers a structured approach to learning and using Morse code, enhancing comprehension and retention. By adjusting the spacing between characters and words while maintaining the speed of individual symbols, Farnsworth timing provides a balanced learning experience for Morse code enthusiasts. Whether you are a beginner or an experienced operator, understanding and implementing Farnsworth timing can improve your Morse code skills significantly.
The WHCA-ARC Morse Code Training Course

Let’s delve into some straightforward tips on what to do and what not to do to improve your skills in sending and receiving Morse Code.
Do
- Realize that learning Morse code is not hard. However, it takes diligent practice to become proficient. Think of it as learning to play the piano, but without taking years to become proficient.
- The characters will be introduced first with two letters at a speed of 20-wpm with a 10-wpm spacing. This is a good way to engrain into the mind the character as a whole. When your copying accuracy reaches 90% another letter will be introduced using the same process.
- After becoming proficient copying the individual characteristics as a whole. Individual characters with be sent at a 20-wpm timing with the spacing between the characters at 5-wpm. As you become more comfortable with copying a series of letters, or words, the timing between the characters can decrease.
- Develop a habit of practicing regularly. More frequent practice for shorter periods is more effective than fewer more extended sessions. Ideally, practice twice a day for 10 to 15 minutes every day.
- Remember, the point of learning Morse Code is to have fun! If you get frustrated, put it down for a while. If you get frequent interruptions, put it down for a while.
- Set a goal for the level of proficiency you want to achieve and write it down. This simple act will improve your chances of accomplishing your goal! Complete this form more and sign it. Hang it up were you can see it.
- Use this log to keep a log of your practice and proficiency. Look back on it when you fail to see all the progress you have made. Persistence pays off.
- If you get bored with your practice routine, change it up. Keep it fresh and fun. Practice with our Morse Code study group. Friendly competition is good.
- Learn to copy all the characters before learning to send. This will help you listen for the sound pattern of characters instead of counting dits and dahs.
- If you run into difficulty, seek out the help and advice from out study group. Others may have advice that will also work for you.
- Protect your hearing! Listen to Morse code at the lowest usable volume, especially if using headphones.
Don’t
- Don’t learn Morse code at 5 wpm!
- Don’t use Morse code sound-alikes! It is tough to let go of this mnemonic as you transition to higher speeds.
- Don’t use a Morse code tree or any other kind of visual representation to learn Morse code.
- Don’t memorize the sequence of dits and dahs for each character. Conscious thinking is slow compared to the unconscious mind’s ability to process information. Using a lookup table is difficult, and it will prevent you from going faster than 10 to 13wpm.
- Avoid repeating characters in your mind. Work to develop Instant Character Recognition.
- Don’t learn to send without continuous evaluation of your timing. Use an Elmer or software to monitor your progress. It can be challenging to break bad habits formed early on.
- Avoid becoming tense and stressed as you practice. If you miss a letter or word, let it go.
Here are 12 fundamental principles for mastering Morse Code.
If you are running into difficulties learning Morse code, consider the following. They are twelve interrelated problems caused primarily by improper teaching or self-learning techniques coupled with bad habits formed during the learning and proficiency improvement process. Most students encounter one or more of these problems through the course of gaining proficiency. (The credit for this section goes to Jack Ritter, W0UCE, Silent Key. The entire article can be found here.)
1. Anticipating what is being sent: A common problem develops when paper and pencil are used to write or print each letter as it is sent versus learning to copy complete words by their distinct rhythm and sound by ear.
For example, the letters A N Y are written down individually, and the person copying them down is focused on each letter. They have no idea of words or sentence flow. They are not learning to use Morse as a language and are merely copying down individual characters. Then if the next letter to follow ANY is W, the mind’s eye anticipates ANYWAY or ANYWHERE. If a different letter than what is expected follows, their focus is diverted. This is the problem with anticipation.
NOTE: This is a lofty goal for mere mortals. People who are gifted with a good memory can learn entire words instead of individual letters. The rest of us copy code a letter at a time. As experienced is gained, word patterns will be learned. For example, the word “the”, “this” and them is used often and has a distinct pattern. Another example are pronouns like \SK \AR \KN \AS. salutations like 73 are also easily learned words or phrases. Follow this link to see most commonly used words
The most efficient way to overcome anticipation is to learn to recognize complete words by their unique sound and rhythm while learning to copy by ear and copying behind. Practice identifying the sound and rhythm of the most common double letter, two and three letter combinations based upon the frequency of usage in the English language helps to form word sounds.
Common double letter combinations: ll, ee, ss, tt, oo, mm, ff, pp, rr ,nn, cc, dd – The thirty most frequent two-letter combinations comprise one third of all letter usage: th, he, in, er, an, re, on, en, at, es, ed, te, ti, or, st, ar, nd, to, nt, is, of, it, al, as, ha, ng, co, se, me, de – The most common three-letter combinations are: the, and, tio, ati, for, tha, ter, res, ere, con, ted, com, hat, ent, ion, nde, has, ing
2. Attention loss, lack of accuracy: Attention loss is often related to Problem 10 during the learning phase and often causes frustration. Practice sessions should not exceed thirty minutes in duration. Break up practice sessions in ten or fifteen-minute increments. And practice thirty minutes a day, seven days a week.
Lack of accuracy is related to Problems 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, and 10. There is no substitute or better way to learn and improve proficiency than learning to copy by ear and only take notes versus putting individual characters on paper. Practices learning the sound of short words then progress to short phrases such as my dog. Then add a follow on word to start building phrases and sentences. Common QSO exchanges help build confidence to get on the air.
3. Counting Dits and Dahs: Learning Morse code by counting Dits and Dahs is a terrible habit that is difficult to break. Counting is typically caused by learning Morse at 5 or 10 words per minute character speed. While some instructors endorse using the Farnsworth method, adding extra space between characters often leads to unintentional counting. And a long delay can allow a student to replay the sound pattern in their head. (Counting is directly related to Problems 7, 8, 9, and 12.)
Consider starting with a 20wpm character speed with a bit of extra space between short words. For example, TEA followed by EAT. Then progress to three-word phrases. Eliminate extra spaces between words as quickly as possible to learn and use Morse with normal speed and spacing. Why teach or learn at 5 or 10 wpm when it just as easy to learn at 20wpm.
4. Dit and Dah Transposition: Transposition is primarily related to learning at slow character speed and tone frequency being either too low or too high for an individual’s hearing frequency range. The most common character reversals or transposition are: er-re, es-se, an-na, it-ti, on-no, en-ne, ot-to, ed-de, st-ts, at-ta, ar-ra, in-ni.
To overcome the problem of transposition, practice copying and sending the numbers 1 through 10.
5. Inability to break old habits: The obvious answer to overcoming this problem is not to develop bad habits in the first place! Bad habits developed in the early learning stage are the most difficult to overcome.
The key to breaking old habits is to focus on exercises, methods, and techniques that help overcome or break specific old habits. The first step is to determine what bad habits individuals have and make a list. Then focus on overcoming the worst bad habit or habits first. Develop a plan and follow it.
6. Inability to copy behind: This problem is directly related to Problem 12. Until students or those with experience “break the pencil and toss out the paper” and learn to copy entire words by their distinct sound and rhythm, this problem will automatically become problem 5, 8, 9 and 10. And this problem must be broken to become proficient and use Morse code as a language.
To overcome this problem, set up exercises comprised of short word phrases. Repeat two or three times if necessary and practice retaining phases such as MY RED HAT, HER OLD CAT, BIG BAD BEN, UR RST 599, MY RIG IS A K3.
Click 100 most commonly used words
7. Inability to distinguish spaces and timing: This problem is usually related to learning to copy at slow speed and copying individual letters versus words. Concerning sending, we can tune the bands most any day and hear poorly formed code. This sender is said to have a “bad fist.”
While an experienced instructor will not encourage using code readers, new radios such as the Elecraft K-3 can display Morse as it is sent. Students can benefit by using a Morse display actually to see that they are sending with proper character spacing and timing. Watching a display while practicing sending helps overcome spacing and timing issues.
8. Increasing speed: This problem concerns copying and is directly related to every other problem on the Dirty Dozen List. Identify and address each problem individually. This will make increasing speed easier to achieve.
Then if you are still stuck, consider that most everyone reaches a “plateau” or bump in the road where they seem to be stuck at a certain speed. To overcome problems with a given plateau or bump in the road, “jump the bump.” For example, if you are stuck at 20wpm, increase the speed to 21 or 22-wpm. Increasing the speed by even one or two words per minute is the best way to increase receiving speed proficiency.
9. Lack of confidence: This problem is usually related to “getting on the air” and making QSOs. One way to gain confidence is to have QSOs with yourself. Use a code practice oscillator or key the sidetone on a transceiver without going on air. Make up a list of QSO exchanges using different call signs, names, and QTH, and then use it to practice with yourself.
Even if contesting is not something an individual wants to do, they are excellent confidence builders as the exchanges are short (except for the Sweepstakes) and there are plenty of state QSO parties to take part in. Practice makes perfect.
10. Mental fatigue: This problem is common with many activities, and practicing Morse code is no different. Too much too often is not productive. Don’t practice when you are tired or just after coming home from a hard day at work. Consider practicing when relaxed, early in the morning when you are fresh, or whenever you have a genuine desire to practice. The latter being the best time. Contest or Radio Sport participants are well aware of what a toll fatigue can do to their performance. Don’t overdo it.
11. Memorization versus hearing words: This problem is directly related to problems 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 7. Until individuals develop the ability to recognize complete words by their sound and rhythm, copying behind, and use Morse as a language, this problem will remain on their bad habit list. To overcome this problem practice copying by ear and copying behind.
12. Writing or typing each letter as it is heard: This problem is the significant obstacle standing in the way of becoming proficient in Morse code. It is our worst enemy and by all means, the first bad habit to break. Break the pencil and toss out the writing pad to learn to copy by ear and copy behind. It should be the number one priority for every beginner or anyone with the desire to improve their skill in using Morse code. Learn to use it as a language; this is a rule of thumb to live by.
NOTE: This section is based on the article “Morse Code Ninja Advice”